American Civil War (Episode:2)
War Details of the American Civil War
The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a pivotal event in U.S. history. This brutal struggle claimed over 600,000 lives, reshaped the nation, and ended slavery. After 11 Southern states seceded and attacked Fort Sumter in April 1861, the war began, pitting the Union against the Confederacy in a four-year conflict full of massive battles, strategic changes, and significant social shifts. This blog, the second in a series on the Civil War, gives a thorough look at the military campaigns, important battles, strategies, and human cost of the war, with references to primary sources and historical context. From the first shots to the final surrender, this narrative captures the scale and complexity of this transformative war.
Overview of the War’s Scope
Map of the Civil War Theaters, 1861–1865
Source: Library of Congress, Geography and Map Division
This detailed map illustrates the Eastern, Western, and Trans-Mississippi theaters, showing key battle sites and the geographic scope of the conflict. It provides a visual context for the war’s sprawling campaigns.
The Civil War was fought over a large area, stretching from Pennsylvania to Texas. This included more than 10,000 military engagements, featuring major battles, skirmishes, and sieges. The Union had 22 million people, 21 states, and a growing industrial economy, which gave it advantages in manpower, resources, and infrastructure. The Confederacy, with 9 million people (including 3.5 million enslaved), 11 states, and an agricultural economy, focused on defensive tactics, skilled leadership, and the hope for foreign help. The war was divided into three main regions:
- Eastern Theater: Centered on Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, where the Union’s Army of the Potomac faced the Confederacy’s Army of Northern Virginia.
- Western Theater: Included the Mississippi River valley and Tennessee, where Union forces aimed to control key rivers and divide the Confederacy.
- Trans-Mississippi Theater: Covered Missouri, Arkansas, and Texas, with smaller but crucial campaigns.
Initially, the Union wanted to preserve the nation; however, by 1863, ending slavery became a key objective with the Emancipation Proclamation. The Confederacy fought for its independence and to maintain slavery. Both sides raised large armies, with the Union mobilizing over 2.2 million soldiers and the Confederacy about 1.2 million, most of whom were volunteers.
Early War: 1861–1862
First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), July 21, 1861
First Battle of Bull Run, 1861
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division
This lithograph depicts the chaotic clash at Bull Run, with Union and Confederate troops engaged in fierce combat. The image captures the battle’s disorder and the shock of early war violence.
The first major battle of the war, fought near Manassas, Virginia, shattered hopes for a quick resolution. Union General Irvin McDowell commanded 35,000 troops against Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard’s 20,000, who later received reinforcements from Joseph E. Johnston’s 11,000. The battle was chaotic and involved inexperienced soldiers on both sides. Confederate General Thomas “Stonewall” Jackson earned his nickname by standing firm, while a Confederate counterattack led by General Barnard Bee routed the Union troops. The Union retreat to Washington, D.C., was disorganized, and civilians watching fled in panic. The battle resulted in 4,700 casualties (2,900 Union, 1,800 Confederate), indicating the war's seriousness.
Primary Source Reference:- Official Records of the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Vol. 2, includes battle reports available through the National Archives (www.archives.gov).
Union Blockade and Naval Strategy
USS Monitor vs. CSS Virginia, 1862
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division
This engraving of the Battle of Hampton Roads shows the ironclad USS Monitor facing the CSS Virginia, a naval clash that revolutionized warfare and supported the Union’s blockade strategy.
From the beginning, the Union launched the “Anaconda Plan” created by General Winfield Scott to strangle the Confederacy economically. This plan involved a naval blockade of Southern ports, controlling the Mississippi River, and capturing key cities like Richmond. The blockade, enforced by 600 Union Navy ships, severely hurt Southern trade, especially cotton exports to Europe. By 1862, Union forces seized New Orleans, a vital Confederate port, under Admiral David Farragut, further weakening the South’s economy.
Western Theater Successes: Forts Henry and Donelson, Shiloh
Battle of Shiloh, 1862
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division
This chromolithograph illustrates the intense fighting at Shiloh, with Union and Confederate lines clashing amidst dense woods, highlighting the battle’s ferocity and high casualties.
In the Western Theater, Union General Ulysses S. Grant became a prominent figure. In February 1862, Grant captured Forts Henry and Donelson on the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, leading to the surrender of 12,000 Confederate soldiers and opening Tennessee to Union control. These victories earned Grant the nickname “Unconditional Surrender” Grant.
The Battle of Shiloh (April 6–7, 1862) in Tennessee was particularly bloody. Grant’s 63,000 soldiers faced Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston’s 40,000. A surprise attack by the Confederates nearly overwhelmed the Union, but reinforcements under General Don Carlos Buell turned the tide. Johnston’s death during the battle was a significant loss for the Confederacy. Total casualties were staggering: 13,000 Union and 10,000 Confederate, making Shiloh one of the war's deadliest fights at that time.
Peninsula Campaign, Spring–Summer 1862
Seven Days Battles, 1862
Source: HistoryNet
This engraving depicts a scene from the Seven Days Battles, showing Confederate forces under Lee driving back McClellan’s army, a critical early victory for the South.
In the Eastern Theater, Union General George B. McClellan initiated the Peninsula Campaign to capture Richmond. Leading the 120,000-member Army of the Potomac, McClellan advanced slowly up the Virginia Peninsula, hindered by his cautious approach and inflated estimates of Confederate strength. Confederate General Robert E. Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in June 1862 and pushed McClellan back in the Seven Days Battles (June 25–July 1, 1862), suffering 20,000 Confederate and 16,000 Union casualties. The failure of this campaign demoralized the North.
Primary Source Reference:- McClellan’s letters to his wife, which highlight his cautious mindset, can be found at the Library of Congress (www.loc.gov).
Turning Points: 1862–1863
Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), August 28–30, 1862
Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia, reinforced by Stonewall Jackson, defeated Union General John Pope’s Army of Virginia. The victory (14,000 Union casualties, 8,000 Confederate) enabled Lee to invade the North, aiming to influence public opinion and secure foreign support.
Battle of Antietam, September 17, 1862
Confederate Dead at Antietam, 1862
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division
Alexander Gardner’s haunting photograph of Confederate soldiers at Bloody Lane underscores Antietam’s horrific toll, shocking Northern audiences when displayed in 1862.
Lee’s invasion culminated in the Battle of Antietam, Maryland, the bloodiest single day in American history. McClellan’s 87,000 troops faced Lee’s 38,000 in a brutal fight along Antietam Creek. Key confrontations occurred at the Cornfield, Bloody Lane, and Burnside’s Bridge. Total casualties reached 22,700 (12,400 Union, 10,300 Confederate). Although the battle was tactically inconclusive, McClellan’s failure to pursue Lee’s retreating army allowed the Confederates to escape. The battle’s strategic significance lay in Lincoln’s decision to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862. This changed the war’s focus to a fight against slavery and discouraged foreign intervention.
Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, 1863
Emancipation Proclamation, 1863
Source: Library of Congress, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, E453 .U6
This printed broadside of the Emancipation Proclamation symbolizes the war’s shift toward a fight for freedom, a pivotal moment in redefining the Union’s cause.
Lincoln’s proclamation declared that enslaved people in Confederate-held territories were free, which changed the war’s moral and political aspects. While it did not immediately free slaves, it allowed nearly 200,000 African Americans to enlist in the Union army by the war’s end, including the famous 54th Massachusetts Regiment. The proclamation influenced international sentiment, making it challenging for Britain and France, which had abolished slavery, to support the Confederacy.
Battle of Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862
Union General Ambrose Burnside attempted to cross the Rappahannock River and attack Lee at Fredericksburg, Virginia, but faced disaster. Repeated frontal assaults on Confederate positions at Marye’s Heights led to 12,600 Union casualties compared to 5,300 Confederate. This defeat caused Burnside to be replaced by General Joseph Hooker.
Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1–6, 1863
Usually viewed as Lee’s greatest victory, Chancellorsville saw the Confederacy, outnumbered 2-to-1 (130,000 Union vs. 60,000 Confederate), defeat Hooker’s Army of the Potomac. Lee and Jackson’s bold tactics, including Jackson’s flanking movement, overwhelmed the Union. However, Jackson was accidentally shot by his own men and died, which was a major blow for the Confederacy. Total casualties stood at 17,000 Union and 13,000 Confederate.
Primary Source Reference:- Alexander Gardner’s photographs of Antietam, including “Confederate Dead at Bloody Lane.
The Tide Turns: 1863–1864
Battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863
Gettysburg Battlefield, 1863
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division
Timothy O’Sullivan’s photograph of dead soldiers at Gettysburg’s “Harvest of Death” conveys the battle’s immense human cost and its role as a turning point.
Lee’s second invasion of the North resulted in the war’s turning point at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. His 75,000 soldiers clashed with General George G. Meade’s 97,000 Union troops over three days. Key moments included:
-Day 1: Confederate advances forced Union forces back through Gettysburg to Cemetery Hill.
- Day 2: Intense fighting at Little Round Top, Devil’s Den, and the Peach Orchard, with Union lines holding strong.
- Day 3: Pickett’s Charge, a doomed Confederate attack on Cemetery Ridge, was repelled, leading to 6,000 Confederate casualties in just one hour.
Total casualties surpassed 50,000 (23,000 Union, 28,000 Confederate). Lee’s retreat to Virginia marked a significant loss, ending any hopes for a decisive Confederate invasion of the North. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address, delivered on November 19, 1863, during the battlefield dedication, reframed the war as a quest for democracy and equality.
Vicksburg Campaign, May–July 1863
In the Western Theater, Grant’s six-month effort to capture Vicksburg, Mississippi, culminated in a siege from May 18 to July 4, 1863. The fall of Vicksburg gave the Union control over the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy and cutting off supplies from the Trans-Mississippi. Together with Gettysburg, Vicksburg represented a major shift in momentum toward the Union.
Chattanooga Campaign, November 1863
Grant’s successes at Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge secured Chattanooga, Tennessee, a crucial rail center, and opened the route for the Georgia invasion. Union casualties were 5,800, while Confederate losses were 6,700.
Overland Campaign, May–June 1864
Grant became the Union general-in-chief in March 1864 and launched an unyielding campaign against Lee in Virginia. The battles of the Wilderness, Spotsylvania Court House, and Cold Harbor were extremely costly, resulting in 55,000 Union and 33,000 Confederate casualties. Grant’s strategy of attrition, which utilized the Union’s manpower advantage, gradually wore down Lee’s forces despite severe losses.
Sherman’s Atlanta Campaign, May–September 1864
Sherman’s March to the Sea, 1864
This illustration shows Sherman’s troops destroying railroads, a hallmark of his total war strategy that crippled Confederate logistics.
General William Tecumseh Sherman’s 100,000-strong army marched through Georgia, capturing Atlanta on September 2, 1864. This victory raised Northern spirits and helped ensure Lincoln’s re-election in 1864. Sherman’s later “March to the Sea” (November–December 1864) devastated Georgia by targeting its infrastructure and employing total war tactics to break Confederate resolve.
Primary Source Reference:- Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address can be found at the Library of Congress, Manuscript Division.
The War’s End: 1865
Surrender at Appomattox, 1865
Petersburg Siege, June 1864–April 1865
Grant laid siege to Lee’s army at Petersburg, Virginia, an important supply center for Richmond. The nine-month siege drained Confederate resources. On April 2, 1865, the Union broke through, forcing Lee to abandon Petersburg and Richmond.
Appomattox Campaign, April 1865
Lee’s retreating army, now fewer than 30,000 men, was pursued by Grant’s 120,000. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House, Virginia, effectively ending the war. The terms were generous: Confederate soldiers were paroled and permitted to go home with their horses. Other Confederate forces, including Joseph E. Johnston’s in North Carolina, surrendered soon after.
Primary Source Reference:- Grant’s and Lee’s correspondence regarding the Appomattox surrender is available through the National Park Service, Appomattox Court House National Historical Park (www.nps.gov/apco).
The Human and Social Impact
54th Massachusetts Regiment, 1863
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division,
This illustration of the 54th Massachusetts, an African American regiment, storming Fort Wagner highlights the critical role of Black soldiers in the Union’s victory.
The Civil War’s impact was immense:
- Casualties: About 620,000 soldiers died (360,000 Union, 260,000 Confederate), with 475,000 wounded. Disease, not combat, was responsible for two-thirds of deaths due to rampant dysentery, typhoid, and smallpox.
- African American Contributions: Almost 200,000 Black soldiers served in the Union army and navy. They faced discrimination but demonstrated bravery in battles like Fort Wagner (1863).
- Civilian Impact: Southern civilians dealt with shortages, inflation, and destruction, especially during Sherman’s campaigns. Northern civilians experienced conscription riots, most notably in New York City in 1863.
- Economic Costs: The war cost the Union $6.6 billion and the Confederacy $2 billion, equivalent to over $100 billion today. The South’s economy suffered greatly, with infrastructure and plantations destroyed.
The war ended slavery through the 13th Amendment (ratified December 1865), strengthened federal authority, and laid the groundwork for Reconstruction. However, it left deep wounds, with racial and regional tensions lasting for generations.
Military Innovations and Strategies
Union Field Artillery, c. 1863
Source: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division
This photograph of a Union artillery battery showcases the technological advancements in weaponry that shaped Civil War battles.
The Civil War served as a testing ground for modern warfare:
- Technology: Rifled muskets increased range and accuracy. Improvements in artillery, like the Parrott gun, enhanced destructive capability. Ironclad ships, such as the USS *Monitor* and CSS *Virginia*, changed naval warfare.
- Tactics: Trench warfare at Petersburg foreshadowed the strategies of World War I. Railroads and telegraphs allowed for rapid troop and communication movements.
- Total War: Sherman’s campaigns targeted civilian infrastructure to undermine Confederate morale, marking a precursor to 20th-century warfare.
Conclusion: A War That Redefined a Nation
The American Civil War was a transformative conflict marked by significant battles, strategic ingenuity, and profound moral questions. From Bull Run to Appomattox, it tested the endurance of both the Union and Confederacy, reshaping the United States into a nation committed to unity and freedom, even if imperfectly realized. The military details of the war—its campaigns, innovations, and human costs—illustrate the complexity of a struggle that was both tragic and a turning point.
This blog is part of a series examining the Civil War’s causes, outbreak, and legacy. Future posts will explore Reconstruction, the war’s social impact, and its lasting lessons. The Civil War serves as a reminder of the cost of division and the resolve needed to confront injustice.
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